Electromechanical device with optical function separated from mechanical and electrical function

ABSTRACT

A microelectromechanical (MEMS) device includes a substrate, a movable element over the substrate, and an actuation electrode above the movable element. The movable element includes a deformable layer and a reflective element. The deformable layer is spaced from the reflective element.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/772,777, filed Jul. 2, 2007 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,944,599 onMay 17, 2011,which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 11/112,734, filed Apr. 22, 2005 and issued as U.S. Pat. No.7,372,613 on May 13, 2008, which claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/613,486, filed Sep. 27, 2004, and U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/613,499, filed Sep. 27, 2004, each of which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) include micro mechanical elements,actuators, and electronics. Micromechanical elements may be createdusing deposition, etching, and/or other micromachining processes thatetch away parts of substrates and/or deposited material layers or thatadd layers to form electrical and electromechanical devices. One type ofMEMS device is called an interferometric modulator. As used herein, theterm interferometric modulator or interferometric light modulator refersto a device that selectively absorbs and/or reflects light using theprinciples of optical interference. In certain embodiments, aninterferometric modulator may comprise a pair of conductive plates, oneor both of which may be transparent and/or reflective in whole or partand capable of relative motion upon application of an appropriateelectrical signal. In a particular embodiment, one plate may comprise astationary layer deposited on a substrate, the other plate may comprisea metallic membrane separated from the stationary layer by an air gap.As described herein in more detail, the position of one plate inrelation to another can change the optical interference of lightincident on the interferometric modulator. Such devices have a widerange of applications, and it would be beneficial in the art to utilizeand/or modify the characteristics of these types of devices so thattheir features can be exploited in improving existing products andcreating new products that have not yet been developed.

SUMMARY

The system, method, and devices of the invention each have severalaspects, no single one of which is solely responsible for its desirableattributes. Without limiting the scope of this invention, its moreprominent features will now be discussed briefly. After considering thisdiscussion, and particularly after reading the section entitled“Detailed Description of Preferred Embodiments” one will understand howthe features of this invention provide advantages over other displaydevices.

In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprisesa substrate, a movable element over the substrate, and an actuationelectrode above the movable element. The movable element comprises adeformable layer and a reflective element. The deformable layer isspaced from the reflective element.

In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprisesmeans for moving a portion of the device, means for supporting movingmeans, and means for actuating the moving means. The actuating means isabove the moving means. The moving means comprises means for deformingand means for reflecting. The deforming means is spaced from thereflecting means.

In certain embodiments, a method of manufacturing amicroelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises forming a firstsacrificial layer over a substrate, forming a reflective element overthe first sacrificial layer, forming a second sacrificial layer over thereflective element, forming a deformable layer over the secondsacrificial layer, forming a third sacrificial layer over the deformablelayer, forming an actuation electrode over the third sacrificial layer,and removing the first, second, and third sacrificial layers. Thedeformable layer is mechanically coupled to the reflective element.

In certain embodiments, a method of modulating light comprises providinga display element comprising a substrate, a movable element over thesubstrate, and an actuation electrode. The movable element comprises adeformable layer and a reflective element. The deformable layer isspaced from the reflective element. The actuation electrode is above themovable element. The method further comprises applying a voltage to theactuation electrode. The voltage generates an attractive force on themovable element, thereby causing the movable element to move away fromthe substrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an isometric view depicting a portion of one embodiment of aninterferometric modulator display in which a movable reflective layer ofa first interferometric modulator is in a released position and amovable reflective layer of a second interferometric modulator is in anactuated position.

FIG. 2 is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of anelectronic device incorporating a 3×3 interferometric modulator display.

FIG. 3 is a diagram of movable mirror position versus applied voltagefor one exemplary embodiment of an interferometric modulator of FIG. 1.

FIG. 4 is an illustration of a set of row and column voltages that maybe used to drive an interferometric modulator display.

FIG. 5A illustrates one exemplary frame of display data in the 3×3interferometric modulator display of FIG. 2.

FIG. 5B illustrates one exemplary timing diagram for row and columnsignals that may be used to write the frame of FIG. 5A.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment ofa visual display device comprising a plurality of interferometricmodulators.

FIG. 7A is a cross section of the device of FIG. 1.

FIG. 7B is a cross section of an alternative embodiment of aninterferometric modulator.

FIG. 7C is a cross section of another alternative embodiment of aninterferometric modulator.

FIG. 7D is a cross section of yet another alternative embodiment of aninterferometric modulator.

FIG. 7E is a cross section of an additional alternative embodiment of aninterferometric modulator.

FIG. 8 is a side cross-sectional view of an example interferometricmodulator that illustrates the spectral characteristics of producedlight.

FIG. 9 is a graphical illustration of reflectivity versus wavelength formirrors of several example interferometric modulators.

FIG. 10 is a chromaticity diagram that illustrates the colors that canbe produced by a color display that includes example sets of red, green,and blue interferometric modulators.

FIG. 11 is a side cross-sectional view of an example multistateinterferometric modulator.

FIGS. 12A-12C are side cross-sectional views of another examplemultistate interferometric modulator.

FIG. 13A is a cross-sectional view of an example embodiment of a MEMSdevice having the optical function separated from the electricalfunction and the mechanical function.

FIG. 13B is a cross-sectional view of the MEMS device of FIG. 13A in anactuated state.

FIG. 13C is a cross-sectional view of another example embodiment of aMEMS device having the optical function separated from the electricalfunction and the mechanical function.

FIG. 14A is a cross-sectional view of yet another example embodiment ofa MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electricalfunction and the mechanical function.

FIGS. 14B and 14C are cross-sectional views of the MEMS devices of FIG.14A in actuated states.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are blown up cross-sectional views of embodiments ofactuation electrodes for a MEMS device having the optical functionseparated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

FIG. 16A is a cross-sectional view of still another example embodimentof a MEMS device having the optical function separated from theelectrical function and the mechanical function.

FIGS. 16B and 16C are cross-sectional views of the MEMS devices of FIG.16A in actuated states.

FIGS. 17A-17H schematically illustrate an example series of processingsteps for forming an embodiment of a MEMS device having the opticalfunction separated from the electrical function and the mechanicalfunction.

FIGS. 18A-18G schematically illustrate an example series of processingsteps for forming another embodiment of a MEMS device having the opticalfunction separated from the electrical function and the mechanicalfunction.

FIGS. 19A-19D schematically illustrate an example series of processingsteps for forming yet another embodiment of a MEMS device having theoptical function separated from the electrical function and themechanical function.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

The following detailed description is directed to certain specificembodiments of the invention. However, the invention can be embodied ina multitude of different ways. In this description, reference is made tothe drawings wherein like parts are designated with like numeralsthroughout. As will be apparent from the following description, theembodiments may be implemented in any device that is configured todisplay an image, whether in motion (e.g., video) or stationary (e.g.,still image), and whether textual or pictorial. More particularly, it iscontemplated that the embodiments may be implemented in or associatedwith a variety of electronic devices such as, but not limited to, mobiletelephones, wireless devices, personal data assistants (PDAs), hand-heldor portable computers, GPS receivers/navigators, cameras, MP3 players,camcorders, game consoles, wrist watches, clocks, calculators,television monitors, flat panel displays, computer monitors, autodisplays (e.g., odometer display, etc.), cockpit controls and/ordisplays, display of camera views (e.g., display of a rear view camerain a vehicle), electronic photographs, electronic billboards or signs,projectors, architectural structures, packaging, and aestheticstructures (e.g., display of images on a piece of jewelry). MEMS devicesof similar structure to those described herein can also be used innon-display applications such as in electronic switching devices.Moreover, all figures herein have been drawn to depict the relationshipsbetween certain elements, and therefore are highly diagrammatic andshould not be considered to be to scale.

In certain embodiments, an actuation electrode disposed above thereflective element and the deformable layer of a movable element isprovided. The actuation electrode is not in the optical path, whichallows it to comprise a non-transparent conductor and to be thicker,thereby improving power consumption. In some embodiments, the deformablelayer, rather than the reflective surface, contacts a stationary portionof the MEMS device upon actuation, which reduces, in turn, stiction,spring constant, electrostatic force, and capacitor area, thus enablingfast and low power operation. In some embodiments, surface rougheningand other anti-stiction features may be formed between the actuationelectrode and the deformable layer without impacting optical performancebecause the features are not in the optical path. In some embodiments,the reflective surface does not contact anything upon actuation,allowing it to be substantially smooth and flat without the danger ofstiction. In some embodiments, a second actuation electrode is providedbelow the movable element or between the deformable layer and thereflective surface such that the reflective surface is stable in atleast three states.

One interferometric modulator display embodiment comprising aninterferometric MEMS display element is illustrated in FIG. 1. In thesedevices, the pixels are in either a bright or dark state. In the bright(“on” or “open”) state, the display element reflects a large portion ofincident visible light to a user. When in the dark (“off” or “closed”)state, the display element reflects little incident visible light to theuser. Depending on the embodiment, the light reflectance properties ofthe “on” and “off” states may be reversed. MEMS pixels can be configuredto reflect predominantly at selected colors, allowing for a colordisplay in addition to black and white.

FIG. 1 is an isometric view depicting two adjacent pixels in a series ofpixels of a visual display, wherein each pixel comprises a MEMSinterferometric modulator. In some embodiments, an interferometricmodulator display comprises a row/column array of these interferometricmodulators. Each interferometric modulator includes a pair of reflectivelayers positioned at a variable and controllable distance from eachother to form a resonant optical cavity with at least one variabledimension. In one embodiment, one of the reflective layers may be movedbetween two positions. In the first position, referred to herein as therelaxed position, the movable reflective layer is positioned at arelatively large distance from a fixed partially reflective layer. Inthe second position, referred to herein as the actuated position, themovable reflective layer is positioned more closely adjacent to thepartially reflective layer. Incident light that reflects from the twolayers interferes constructively or destructively depending on theposition of the movable reflective layer, producing either an overallreflective or non-reflective state for each pixel.

The depicted portion of the pixel array in FIG. 1 includes two adjacentinterferometric modulators 12 a and 12 b. In the interferometricmodulator 12 a on the left, a movable reflective layer 14 a isillustrated in a relaxed position at a predetermined distance from anoptical stack 16 a, which includes a partially reflective layer. In theinterferometric modulator 12 b on the right, the movable reflectivelayer 14 b is illustrated in an actuated position adjacent to theoptical stack 16 b.

The optical stacks 16 a and 16 b (collectively referred to as theoptical stack 16), as referenced herein, typically comprise severalfused layers, which can include an electrode layer, such as indium tinoxide (ITO), a partially reflective layer, such as chromium, and atransparent dielectric. The optical stack 16 is thus electricallyconductive, partially transparent, and partially reflective, and may befabricated, for example, by depositing one or more layers of the abovelayers onto a transparent substrate 20. The partially reflective layercan be formed from a variety of materials that are partially reflectivesuch as various metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. The partiallyreflective layer can be formed of one or more layers of materials, andeach of the layers can be formed of a single material or a combinationof materials.

In some embodiments, the layers of the optical stack 16 are patternedinto parallel strips, and may form row electrodes in a display device asdescribed further below. The movable reflective layers 14 a, 14 b may beformed as a series of parallel strips of a deposited metal layer orlayers (orthogonal to the row electrodes of 16 a, 16 b) deposited on topof posts 18 and an intervening sacrificial material deposited betweenthe posts 18. When the sacrificial material is etched away, thedeformable metal layers 14 a, 14 b are separated from the optical stacks16 a, 16 b by a defined air gap 19. A highly conductive and reflectivematerial such as aluminum may be used for the reflective layers 14, andthese strips may form column electrodes in a display device.

With no applied voltage, the gap 19 remains between the movablereflective layer 14 a and optical stack 16 a, with the movablereflective layer 14 a in a mechanically relaxed state, as illustrated bythe pixel 12 a in FIG. 1. However, when a potential difference isapplied to a selected row and column, the capacitor formed at theintersection of the row and column electrodes at the corresponding pixelbecomes charged, and electrostatic forces pull the electrodes together.If the voltage is high enough, the movable reflective layer 14 isdeformed and is forced against the optical stack 16. A dielectric layer(not illustrated in this Figure) within the optical stack 16 may preventshorting and control the separation distance between layers 14 and 16,as illustrated by the pixel 12 b on the right in FIG. 1. The behavior isthe same regardless of the polarity of the applied potential difference.In this way, row/column actuation that can control the reflective vs.non-reflective pixel states is analogous in many ways to that used inconventional LCD and other display technologies.

FIGS. 2 through 5 illustrate one exemplary process and system for usingan array of interferometric modulators in a display application.

FIG. 2 is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of anelectronic device that may incorporate aspects of the invention. In theexemplary embodiment, the electronic device includes a processor 21which may be any general purpose single- or multi-chip microprocessorsuch as an ARM, Pentium®, Pentium II®, Pentium III®, Pentium IV®,Pentium® Pro, an 8051, a MIPS®, a Power PC®, an ALPHA®, or any specialpurpose microprocessor such as a digital signal processor,microcontroller, or a programmable gate array. As is conventional in theart, the processor 21 may be configured to execute one or more softwaremodules. In addition to executing an operating system, the processor maybe configured to execute one or more software applications, including aweb browser, a telephone application, an email program, or any othersoftware application.

In one embodiment, the processor 21 is also configured to communicatewith an array driver 22. In one embodiment, the array driver 22 includesa row driver circuit 24 and a column driver circuit 26 that providesignals to a display array or panel 30. The cross section of the arrayillustrated in FIG. 1 is shown by the lines 1-1 in FIG. 2. For MEMSinterferometric modulators, the row/column actuation protocol may takeadvantage of a hysteresis property of these devices illustrated in FIG.3. It may require, for example, a 10 volt potential difference to causea movable layer to deform from the relaxed state to the actuated state.However, when the voltage is reduced from that value, the movable layermaintains its state as the voltage drops back below 10 volts. In theexemplary embodiment of FIG. 3, the movable layer does not relaxcompletely until the voltage drops below 2 volts. There is thus a rangeof voltage, about 3 to 7 V in the example illustrated in FIG. 3, withinwhich the device is stable in either the relaxed or actuated state. Thisis referred to herein as the “hysteresis window” or “stability window.”For a display array having the hysteresis characteristics of FIG. 3, therow/column actuation protocol can be designed such that during rowstrobing, pixels in the strobed row that are to be actuated are exposedto a voltage difference of about 10 volts, and pixels that are to berelaxed are exposed to a voltage difference of close to zero volts.After the strobe, the pixels are exposed to a steady state voltagedifference of about 5 volts such that they remain in whatever state therow strobe put them in. After being written, each pixel sees a potentialdifference within the “stability window” of 3-7 volts in this example.This feature makes the pixel design illustrated in FIG. 1 stable underthe same applied voltage conditions in either an actuated or relaxedpre-existing state. Since each pixel of the interferometric modulator,whether in the actuated or relaxed state, is essentially a capacitorformed by the fixed and moving reflective layers, this stable state canbe held at a voltage within the hysteresis window with almost no powerdissipation. Essentially no current flows into the pixel if the appliedpotential is fixed.

In typical applications, a display frame may be created by asserting theset of column electrodes in accordance with the desired set of actuatedpixels in the first row. A row pulse is then applied to the row 1electrode, actuating the pixels corresponding to the asserted columnlines. The asserted set of column electrodes is then changed tocorrespond to the desired set of actuated pixels in the second row. Apulse is then applied to the row 2 electrode, actuating the appropriatepixels in row 2 in accordance with the asserted column electrodes. Therow 1 pixels are unaffected by the row 2 pulse, and remain in the statethey were set to during the row 1 pulse. This may be repeated for theentire series of rows in a sequential fashion to produce the frame.Generally, the frames are refreshed and/or updated with new display databy continually repeating this process at some desired number of framesper second. A wide variety of protocols for driving row and columnelectrodes of pixel arrays to produce display frames are also well knownand may be used in conjunction with the present invention.

FIGS. 4, 5A, and 5B illustrate one possible actuation protocol forcreating a display frame on the 3×3 array of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 illustratesa possible set of column and row voltage levels that may be used forpixels exhibiting the hysteresis curves of FIG. 3. In the FIG. 4embodiment, actuating a pixel involves setting the appropriate column to−V_(bias), and the appropriate row to +ΔV, which may correspond to −5volts and +5 volts respectively Releasing the pixel is accomplished bysetting the appropriate column to +V_(bias), and the appropriate row tothe same +ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across thepixel. In those rows where the row voltage is held at zero volts, thepixels are stable in whatever state they were originally in, regardlessof whether the column is at +V_(bias), or −V_(bias). As is alsoillustrated in FIG. 4, it will be appreciated that voltages of oppositepolarity than those described above can be used, e.g., actuating a pixelcan involve setting the appropriate column to +V_(bias), and theappropriate row to −ΔV. In this embodiment, releasing the pixel isaccomplished by setting the appropriate column to −V_(bias), and theappropriate row to the same −ΔV, producing a zero volt potentialdifference across the pixel. As is also illustrated in FIG. 4, it willbe appreciated that voltages of opposite polarity than those describedabove can be used, e.g., actuating a pixel can involve setting theappropriate column to +V_(bias), and the appropriate row to −ΔV. In thisembodiment, releasing the pixel is accomplished by setting theappropriate column to −V_(bias), and the appropriate row to the same−ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel.

FIG. 5B is a timing diagram showing a series of row and column signalsapplied to the 3×3 array of FIG. 2 which will result in the displayarrangement illustrated in FIG. 5A, where actuated pixels arenon-reflective. Prior to writing the frame illustrated in FIG. 5A, thepixels can be in any state, and in this example, all the rows are at 0volts, and all the columns are at +5 volts. With these applied voltages,all pixels are stable in their existing actuated or relaxed states.

In the FIG. 5A frame, pixels (1,1), (1,2), (2,2), (3,2) and (3,3) areactuated. To accomplish this, during a “line time” for row 1, columns 1and 2 are set to −5 volts, and column 3 is set to +5 volts. This doesnot change the state of any pixels, because all the pixels remain in the3-7 volt stability window. Row 1 is then strobed with a pulse that goesfrom 0, up to 5 volts, and back to zero. This actuates the (1,1) and(1,2) pixels and releases the (1,3) pixel. No other pixels in the arrayare affected. To set row 2 as desired, column 2 is set to −5 volts, andcolumns 1 and 3 are set to +5 volts. The same strobe applied to row 2will then actuate pixel (2,2) and relax pixels (2,1) and (2,3). Again,no other pixels of the array are affected. Row 3 is similarly set bysetting columns 2 and 3 to −5 volts, and column 1 to +5 volts. The row 3strobe sets the row 3 pixels as shown in FIG. 5A. After writing theframe, the row potentials are zero, and the column potentials can remainat either +5 or −5 volts, and the display is then stable in thearrangement of FIG. 5A. It will be appreciated that the same procedurecan be employed for arrays of dozens or hundreds of rows and columns. Itwill also be appreciated that the timing, sequence, and levels ofvoltages used to perform row and column actuation can be varied widelywithin the general principles outlined above, and the above example isexemplary only, and any actuation voltage method can be used with thesystems and methods described herein.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment ofa display device 40. The display device 40 can be, for example, acellular or mobile telephone. However, the same components of displaydevice 40 or slight variations thereof are also illustrative of varioustypes of display devices such as televisions and portable media players.

The display device 40 includes a housing 41, a display 30, an antenna43, a speaker 45, an input device 48, and a microphone 46. The housing41 is generally formed from any of a variety of manufacturing processesas are well known to those of skill in the art, including injectionmolding and vacuum forming. In addition, the housing 41 may be made fromany of a variety of materials, including, but not limited to, plastic,metal, glass, rubber, and ceramic, or a combination thereof. In oneembodiment, the housing 41 includes removable portions (not shown) thatmay be interchanged with other removable portions of different color, orcontaining different logos, pictures, or symbols.

The display 30 of exemplary display device 40 may be any of a variety ofdisplays, including a bi-stable display, as described herein. In otherembodiments, the display 30 includes a flat-panel display, such asplasma, EL, OLED, STN LCD, or TFT LCD as described above, or anon-flat-panel display, such as a CRT or other tube device, as is wellknown to those of skill in the art. However, for purposes of describingthe present embodiment, the display 30 includes an interferometricmodulator display, as described herein.

The components of one embodiment of exemplary display device 40 areschematically illustrated in FIG. 6B. The illustrated exemplary displaydevice 40 includes a housing 41 and can include additional components atleast partially enclosed therein. For example, in one embodiment, theexemplary display device 40 includes a network interface 27 thatincludes an antenna 43, which is coupled to a transceiver 47. Thetransceiver 47 is connected to a processor 21, which is connected toconditioning hardware 52. The conditioning hardware 52 may be configuredto condition a signal (e.g., filter a signal). The conditioning hardware52 is connected to a speaker 45 and a microphone 46. The processor 21 isalso connected to an input device 48 and a driver controller 29. Thedriver controller 29 is coupled to a frame buffer 28 and to an arraydriver 22, which in turn is coupled to a display array 30. A powersupply 50 provides power to all components as required by the particularexemplary display device 40 design.

The network interface 27 includes the antenna 43 and the transceiver 47so that the exemplary display device 40 can communicate with one or moredevices over a network. In one embodiment, the network interface 27 mayalso have some processing capabilities to relieve requirements of theprocessor 21. The antenna 43 is any antenna known to those of skill inthe art for transmitting and receiving signals. In one embodiment, theantenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the IEEE 802.11standard, including IEEE 802.11(a), (b), or (g). In another embodiment,the antenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the BLUETOOTHstandard. In the case of a cellular telephone, the antenna is designedto receive CDMA, GSM, AMPS, or other known signals that are used tocommunicate within a wireless cell phone network. The transceiver 47pre-processes the signals received from the antenna 43 so that they maybe received by and further manipulated by the processor 21. Thetransceiver 47 also processes signals received from the processor 21 sothat they may be transmitted from the exemplary display device 40 viathe antenna 43.

In an alternative embodiment, the transceiver 47 can be replaced by areceiver. In yet another alternative embodiment, network interface 27can be replaced by an image source, which can store or generate imagedata to be sent to the processor 21. For example, the image source canbe a digital video disc (DVD) or a hard-disc drive that contains imagedata, or a software module that generates image data.

Processor 21 generally controls the overall operation of the exemplarydisplay device 40. The processor 21 receives data, such as compressedimage data from the network interface 27 or an image source, andprocesses the data into raw image data or into a format that is readilyprocessed into raw image data. The processor 21 then sends the processeddata to the driver controller 29 or to frame buffer 28 for storage. Rawdata typically refers to the information that identifies the imagecharacteristics at each location within an image. For example, suchimage characteristics can include color, saturation, and grayscalelevel.

In one embodiment, the processor 21 includes a microcontroller, CPU, orlogic unit to control operation of the exemplary display device 40.Conditioning hardware 52 generally includes amplifiers and filters fortransmitting signals to the speaker 45, and for receiving signals fromthe microphone 46. Conditioning hardware 52 may be discrete componentswithin the exemplary display device 40, or may be incorporated withinthe processor 21 or other components.

The driver controller 29 takes the raw image data generated by theprocessor 21 either directly from the processor 21 or from the framebuffer 28 and reformats the raw image data appropriately for high speedtransmission to the array driver 22. Specifically, the driver controller29 reformats the raw image data into a data flow having a raster-likeformat, such that it has a time order suitable for scanning across thedisplay array 30. Then the driver controller 29 sends the formattedinformation to the array driver 22. Although a driver controller 29,such as a LCD controller, is often associated with the system processor21 as a stand-alone Integrated Circuit (IC), such controllers may beimplemented in many ways. They may be embedded in the processor 21 ashardware, embedded in the processor 21 as software, or fully integratedin hardware with the array driver 22.

Typically, the array driver 22 receives the formatted information fromthe driver controller 29 and reformats the video data into a parallelset of waveforms that are applied many times per second to the hundredsand sometimes thousands of leads coming from the display's x-y matrix ofpixels.

In one embodiment, the driver controller 29, array driver 22, anddisplay array 30 are appropriate for any of the types of displaysdescribed herein. For example, in one embodiment, driver controller 29is a conventional display controller or a bi-stable display controller(e.g., an interferometric modulator controller). In another embodiment,array driver 22 is a conventional driver or a bi-stable display driver(e.g., an interferometric modulator display). In one embodiment, adriver controller 29 is integrated with the array driver 22. Such anembodiment is common in highly integrated systems such as cellularphones, watches, and other small area displays. In yet anotherembodiment, display array 30 is a typical display array or a bi-stabledisplay array (e.g., a display including an array of interferometricmodulators).

The input device 48 allows a user to control the operation of theexemplary display device 40. In one embodiment, input device 48 includesa keypad, such as a QWERTY keyboard or a telephone keypad, a button, aswitch, a touch-sensitive screen, or a pressure- or heat-sensitivemembrane. In one embodiment, the microphone 46 is an input device forthe exemplary display device 40. When the microphone 46 is used to inputdata to the device, voice commands may be provided by a user forcontrolling operations of the exemplary display device 40.

Power supply 50 can include a variety of energy storage devices as arewell known in the art. For example, in one embodiment, power supply 50is a rechargeable battery, such as a nickel-cadmium battery or a lithiumion battery. In another embodiment, power supply 50 is a renewableenergy source, a capacitor, or a solar cell including a plastic solarcell, and solar-cell paint. In another embodiment, power supply 50 isconfigured to receive power from a wall outlet.

In some embodiments, control programmability resides, as describedabove, in a driver controller which can be located in several places inthe electronic display system. In some embodiments, controlprogrammability resides in the array driver 22. Those of skill in theart will recognize that the above-described optimizations may beimplemented in any number of hardware and/or software components and invarious configurations.

The details of the structure of interferometric modulators that operatein accordance with the principles set forth above may vary widely. Forexample, FIGS. 7A-7E illustrate five different embodiments of the movingmirror structure. FIG. 7A is a cross section of the embodiment of FIG.1, where a strip of metal material 14 is deposited on orthogonallyextending supports 18. In FIG. 7B, the movable reflective material 14 isattached to supports at the corners only, on tethers 32. In FIG. 7C, themovable reflective layer 14 is suspended from a deformable layer 34,which may comprise a flexible metal. The deformable layer 34 connects,directly or indirectly, to the substrate 20 around the perimeter of thedeformable layer 34. These connections are herein referred to as supportposts. The embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7D has support post plugs 42upon which the deformable layer 34 rests. The movable reflective layer14 remains suspended over the gap, as in FIGS. 7A-7C, but the deformablelayer 34 does not form the support posts by filling holes between thedeformable layer 34 and the optical stack 16. Rather, the support postsare formed of a planarization material, which is used to form supportpost plugs 42. The embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7E is based on theembodiment shown in FIG. 7D, but may also be adapted to work with any ofthe embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 7A-7C, as well as additionalembodiments not shown. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7E, an extralayer of metal or other conductive material has been used to form a busstructure 44. This allows signal routing along the back of theinterferometric modulators, eliminating a number of electrodes that mayotherwise have had to be formed on the substrate 20.

In embodiments such as those shown in FIG. 7, the interferometricmodulators function as direct-view devices, in which images are viewedfrom the front side of the transparent substrate 20, the side oppositeto that upon which the modulator is arranged. In these embodiments, thereflective layer 14 optically shields the portions of theinterferometric modulator on the side of the reflective layer oppositethe substrate 20, including the deformable layer 34. This allows theshielded areas to be configured and operated upon without negativelyaffecting the image quality. Such shielding allows the bus structure 44in FIG. 7E, which provides the ability to separate the opticalproperties of the modulator from the electromechanical properties of themodulator, such as addressing and the movements that result from thataddressing. This separable modulator architecture allows the structuraldesign and materials used for the electromechanical aspects and theoptical aspects of the modulator to be selected and to functionindependently of each other. Moreover, the embodiments shown in FIGS.7C-7E have additional benefits deriving from the decoupling of theoptical properties of the reflective layer 14 from its mechanicalproperties, which are carried out by the deformable layer 34. Thisallows the structural design and materials used for the reflectivematerial 14 can be optimized with respect to the optical properties, andthe structural design and materials used for the deformable layer 34 canbe optimized with respect to desired mechanical properties.

Embodiments of interferometric modulators described above operate in oneof a reflective state, which produces white light, or light of a colordetermined by the distance between the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer of the optical stack 16, or in a non-reflective, e.g.,black, state. In other embodiments, for example embodiments disclosed inU.S. Pat. No. 5,986,796, the movable mirror 14 may be positioned at arange of positions relative to the partially reflective layer in theoptical stack 16 to vary the size of the resonant gap 19, and thus tovary the color of reflected light.

FIG. 8 is a side cross-sectional view of an example interferometricmodulator 12 that illustrates the spectral characteristics of light thatwould be produced by positioning the movable mirror 14 at a range ofpositions 111-115. As discussed above, a potential difference betweenrow and column electrodes causes the movable mirror 14 to deflect. Themodulator 12 includes a conductive layer 102 of indium-tin-oxide (ITO)acting as a column electrode. In the example modulator 12, the mirror 14includes the row electrode.

In one embodiment, a dielectric layer 106 of a material such as aluminumoxide (Al₂O₃ or “alumina”) is positioned over a layer of partiallyreflective material 104 (e.g., comprising chromium) that forms areflective surface of the optical stack 16. As discussed above withreference to FIG. 1, the dielectric layer 106 inhibits shorting andcontrols the separation distance between the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer 104 when the mirror 14 deflects. The optical cavityformed between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 thusincludes the dielectric layer 106. The relative sizes of items in FIG. 8have been selected for purposes of conveniently illustrating themodulator 12. Thus, such distances and thicknesses are not to scale andare not intended to be representative of any particular embodiment ofthe modulator 12.

FIG. 9 is a graphical illustration of reflectivity versus wavelength forseveral example optical stacks 16 having various thicknesses ofdielectric layers 106. The horizontal axis represents a range ofwavelengths of visible light incident on the optical stacks. Thevertical axis represents the reflectivity of each optical stack 16 as apercentage of incident light at a particular wavelength. In embodimentsin which the optical stack 16 does not include a dielectric layer 106,the reflectivity of the optical stack 16 including a layer of chromiumis approximately 75%. An optical stack 16 including a dielectric layer106 comprising a 100 Å thick layer of alumina results in approximately65% reflectivity, and an optical stack 16 including a dielectric layer104 comprising a 200 Å thick layer of alumina results in approximately55% reflectivity. As shown, reflectivity does not vary according towavelength in these particular embodiments. Accordingly, by adjustingthe thickness of an Al₂O₃ layer 106, the reflectivity of the opticalstack 16 can be controlled consistently across the visible spectrum toallow specific properties of interferometric modulators 12 to beselected. In certain embodiments, the dielectric layer 106 comprises alayer of Al₂O₃ having a thickness between about 50 and 250 Å. In certainother embodiments, the dielectric layer 106 comprises a layer of Al₂O₃having a thickness between about 50 and 100 Å and a layer of bulk SiO₂having a thickness between about 400 and 2,000 Å.

As discussed above, the modulator 12 includes an optical cavity formedbetween the mirror 14 and the reflective surface of the optical stack16. The characteristic distance, or effective optical path length, L, ofthe optical cavity determines the resonant wavelength, λ, of the opticalcavity 19, and thus of the interferometric modulator 12. The resonantwavelength, λ, of the interferometric modulator 12 generally correspondsto the perceived color of light reflected by the modulator 12.Mathematically, the distance L=½×N×λ, where N is an integer. A givenresonant wavelength, λ, is thus reflected by interferometric modulators12 having distances, L, of λ/2 (N=1), λ, (N=2), 3λ/2 (N=3), etc. Theinteger N may be referred to as the “order” of interference of thereflected light. As used herein, the order of a modulator 12 also refersto the order N of light reflected by the modulator 12 when the mirror 14is in at least one position. For example, a first order redinterferometric modulator 12 may have a distance, L, of about 325 nm,corresponding to a wavelength λ of about 650 nm. Accordingly, a secondorder red interferometric modulator 12 may have a distance, L, of about650 nm. Generally, higher order modulators 12 reflect light over anarrower range of wavelengths, and thus produce colored light that ismore saturated.

Note that in certain embodiments, the distance, L, is substantiallyequal to the distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflectivelayer 104. Where the space between the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer 104 comprises only a gas (e.g., air) having an index ofrefraction of approximately 1, the effective optical path length issubstantially equal to the distance, L, between the mirror 14 and thepartially reflective layer 104. In embodiments that include thedielectric layer 106, which has an index of refraction greater than one,the optical cavity 19 is formed to have the desired optical path lengthby selecting the distance between the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer 104 and by selecting the thickness and index ofrefraction of the dielectric layer 106, or of any other layers betweenthe mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104. In one embodiment,the mirror 14 may be deflected to one or more positions within a rangeof positions to output a corresponding range of colors. For example, thevoltage potential difference between the row and column electrodes maybe adjusted to deflect the mirror 14 to one of a range of positions inrelation to the partially reflective layer 104. In general, the greatestlevel of control of the position of the mirror by adjusting voltage isnear the undeflected position of the path of the mirror 14 (for example,for smaller deflections, such as deflections within about ⅓rd of themaximum deflection from the undeflected position of the mirror 14).

Each of a particular group of positions 111-115 of the movable mirror 14is denoted in FIG. 8 by a line extending from the partially reflectivelayer 104 to an arrow point indicating the positions 111-115. Thus, thedistances 111-115 are selected so as to account for the thickness andindex of refraction of the dielectric layer 106 When the movable mirror14 deflects to each of the positions 111-115, each corresponding to adifferent distance, L, the modulator 12 outputs light to a viewingposition 101 with a different spectral response that corresponds todifferent colors of incident light being reflected by the modulator 12.Moreover, at position 111, the movable mirror 14 is sufficiently closeto the partially reflective layer 104 (e.g., less than about 200 Å,preferably less than about 100 Å) that the effects of interference arenegligible and modulator 12 acts as a mirror that reflects substantiallyall colors of incident visible light substantially equally, e.g., aswhite light. The broadband mirror effect is caused because the distance,L, is too small for optical resonance in the visible band. The mirror 14thus merely acts as a reflective surface with respect to visible light.

As the gap 19 is increased to the position 112, the modulator 12exhibits a shade of gray, as the increased gap 19 distance between themirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 reduces thereflectivity of the mirror 14. At the position 113, the distance, L, issuch that the cavity 19 operates interferometrically but reflectssubstantially no visible wavelengths of light because the resonantwavelength is outside the visible range, thereby producing black.

As the distance, L, is increased further, a peak spectral response ofthe modulator 12 moves into visible wavelengths. Thus, when the movablemirror 14 is at position 114, the modulator 12 reflects blue light. Whenthe movable mirror 14 is at the position 115, the modulator 12 reflectsgreen light. When the movable mirror 14 is at the non-deflected position116, the modulator 12 reflects red light.

In designing a display using interferometric modulators 12, themodulators 12 may be formed so as to increase the color saturation ofreflected light. Saturation refers to the intensity of the hue of colorlight. A highly saturated hue has a vivid, intense color, while a lesssaturated hue appears more muted and gray. For example, a laser, whichproduces a very narrow range of wavelengths, produces highly saturatedlight. Conversely, a typical incandescent light bulb produces whitelight that may have a desaturated red or blue color. In someembodiments, the modulator 12 is formed with a distance, L,corresponding to higher order interference, e.g., 2nd or 3rd order, toincrease the saturation of reflected color light.

An example color display includes red, green, and blue display elements.Other colors can be produced in such a display by varying the relativeintensity of light produced by the red, green, and blue elements.Mixtures of primary colors such as red, green, and blue are perceived bythe human eye as other colors. The relative values of red, green, andblue in such a color system may be referred to as tristimulus values inreference to the stimulation of red, green, and blue light sensitiveportions of the human eye. In general, the more saturated the primarycolors, the greater the range of colors that can be produced by thedisplay. In other embodiments, the display may include modulators 12having sets of colors that define other color systems in terms of setsof primary colors other than red, green, and blue (e.g., red, yellow,and blue; magenta, yellow, and cyan).

FIG. 10 is a chromaticity diagram that illustrates the colors that canbe produced by a color display that includes two sets of example red,green, and blue interferometric modulators. The horizontal and verticalaxes define a chromaticity coordinate system on which spectraltristimulus values may be depicted. In particular, points 120 illustratethe color of light reflected by example red, green, and blueinterferometric modulators 12. White light is indicated by a point 122.The distance from each point 120 to the point 122 of white light, e.g.,the distance 124 between the point 122 for white and the point 120 forgreen light, is indicative of the saturation of light produced by thecorresponding modulator 12. The region enclosed by the triangular trace126 corresponds to the range of colors that can be produced by mixingthe light produced at points 120. This range of colors may be referredto as the “color gamut” of the display.

Points 128 indicate the spectral response of another set of examplemodulators 12. As indicated by the smaller distance between the points128 and the white point 122 than between points 120 and point 122, themodulators 12 corresponding to the points 128 produce less saturatedlight that do the modulators 12 corresponding to the points 120. Thetrace 130 indicates the range of colors that can be produced by mixingthe light of points 128. As is shown in FIG. 10, the trace 126 enclosesa larger area than does the trace 130, graphically illustrating therelationship between the saturation of the display elements 12 and thesize of the color gamut of the display.

In a reflective display, white light produced using such saturatedinterferometric modulators 12 tends to have a relatively low intensityto a viewer because only a small range of incident wavelengths isreflected to form the white light. In contrast, a mirror reflectingbroadband white light, e.g., substantially all incident wavelengths, hasa greater intensity because a greater range of incident wavelengths isreflected. Thus, designing reflective displays using combinations ofprimary colors to produce white light generally results in a tradeoffbetween the color saturation and color gamut of the display and thebrightness of white light output by the display.

FIG. 11 is a side cross-sectional view of an example multistateinterferometric modulator 140 that can produce highly saturated colorlight in one state and relatively intense white light in another state.The example modulator 140 thus decouples color saturation from thebrightness of output white light. The modulator 140 includes a movablemirror 14 that is positioned between two electrodes 102 and 142. Themodulator 140 also includes a second set of posts 18 a that are formedon the opposite side of the mirror 14 as the posts 18.

In certain embodiments, each of the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer 104 may be part of a stack of layers defining areflector or reflective member that perform functions other thanreflecting light. For example, in the example modulator of FIG. 11, themirror 14 is formed of one or more layers of a conductive and reflectivematerial such as aluminum. Thus, the mirror 14 may also function as aconductor. Similarly, the partially reflective layer 104 may be formedof one or more layers of reflective material and one or more layers ofan electrically conductive material so as to perform the functions ofthe electrode 102. Furthermore, each of the mirror 14 and the partiallyreflective layer 104 may also include one or more layers having otherfunctions, such as to control the mechanical properties affectingdeflection of the mirror 14. In one embodiment, the movable mirror 14 issuspended from an additional deformable layer such is described inconnection with FIGS. 7C-7E.

In one embodiment that includes modulators 12 that reflect red, green,and blue light, different reflective materials are used for the mirrors14 of the modulators 12 that reflect different colors, so as to improvethe spectral response of such modulators 12. For example, the movablemirror 14 may include gold in the modulators 12 configured to reflectred light.

In one embodiment, dielectric layers 144, 144 a may be positioned oneither side of the conductor 142 The dielectric layers 144 a and 106advantageously inhibit electrical shorts between conductive portions ofthe mirror 14 and other portions of the modulator 140. In oneembodiment, the partially reflective layer 104 and the electrode 102collectively form a reflective member.

In certain embodiments, the distance between the partially reflectivelayer 104 and the movable mirror 14 in its undriven position correspondsto the optical path length, L, in which the modulator 140 isnon-reflective or “black.” In certain embodiments, the optical pathlength, L, between the partially reflective layer 104 and the movablemirror 14 when driven towards the partially reflective layer 104corresponds to the optical path length, L, in which the modulator 140reflects white light. In the exemplary embodiment, the distance betweenthe partially reflective layer 104 and the movable mirror 14 when driventowards the conductor 142 corresponds to the optical path length, L, inwhich the modulator 140 reflects light of a color such as red, blue, orgreen. In certain embodiments, the distance, L, between the undrivenmovable mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 issubstantially equal to the distance, L, between the undriven movablemirror 14 and the electrode 142. Such embodiments may be considered tobe two modulators positioned around the single movable mirror 14.

When no or small voltage potential differences are applied between themirror 14 and either the electrode 102 or the electrode 142, the mirror14 does not deflect with respect to the partially reflective layer 104to define a first optical path length that corresponds to an undrivenstate. When a first voltage potential difference is applied between themirror 14 and the electrode 102, the mirror 14 deflects towards thepartially reflective layer 104 to define a second optical path lengththat corresponds to a first driven state. In this first driven state,the movable mirror 14 is closer to the partially reflective layer 104than in the undriven state. When a second voltage potential differenceis applied between the mirror 14 and the electrode 142, the mirror 14 isdeflected away from the partially reflective layer 104 to define a thirdoptical path length that corresponds to a second driven state. In thissecond driven state, the movable mirror 14 is farther from the partiallyreflective layer 104 than in the undriven state. In certain embodiments,at least one of the first driven state and second driven state isachieved by applying voltage potential differences both between themirror 14 and the electrode 102 and between the mirror 14 and theelectrode 142. In certain embodiments, the second voltage difference isselected to provide a desired deflection of the mirror 14.

As illustrated in FIG. 11, in the first driven state, the mirror 14deflects to a position indicated by the dashed line 159. In theexemplary modulator 140, the distance between the mirror 14 and thepartially reflective layer 104 in this first driven state corresponds tothe thickness of the dielectric layer 106. In the exemplary modulator140, the mirror 14 acts as a broadband mirror in this driven position,substantially reflecting all visible wavelengths of light. As such, themodulator 140 produces a broadband white light when illuminated bybroadband white light.

In the second driven state, the mirror 14 deflects to a positionindicated by the dashed line 158. In the exemplary modulator 140, thisdistance corresponds to a color of light, e.g., blue light. In theundriven state, the mirror 14 is positioned as shown in FIG. 11. In theundeflected position, the mirror 14 is spaced at a distance from thepartially reflective layer 104 so that substantially no visible light isreflected, e.g., an “off” or non-reflective state. Thus, the modulator140 defines an interferometric modulator having at least three discretestates. In other embodiments, the positions of the movable mirror 14 inthe three states may be selected so as to produce different sets ofcolors, including black and white, as desired.

In one embodiment, light enters the modulator 12 through the substrate20 and is output to a viewing position 141. In another embodiment, thestack of layers illustrated in FIG. 11 is reversed, with layer 144closest to the substrate 20 rather than layer 102. In certain suchembodiments, the modulator 12 may be viewed through the opposite side ofthe stack from the substrate 20 rather than through the substrate 20. Inone such embodiment, a layer of silicon dioxide is formed on the ITOlayer 102 to electrically isolate the ITO layer 102.

As noted above, having a separate state for outputting white light in amodulator 140 decouples the selection of the properties of the modulatorcontrolling color saturation from the properties of the modulatoraffecting the brightness of white output. The distance and othercharacteristics of the modulator 140 may thus be selected to provide ahighly saturated color without affecting the brightness of the whitelight produced in the first state. For example, in an exemplary colordisplay, one or more of the red, green, and blue modulators 140 may beformed with optical path lengths corresponding to a higher order ofinterference.

The modulator 140 may be formed using lithographic techniques known inthe art, and such as described above with reference to the modulator 12.For example, the partially reflective layer 104 may be formed bydepositing one or more layers of chromium onto the substantiallytransparent substrate 20. The electrode 102 may be formed by depositingone or more layers of a transparent conductor such as ITO onto thesubstrate 20. The conductor layers are patterned into parallel strips,and may form columns of electrodes. The movable mirror 14 may be formedas a series of parallel strips of a deposited metal layer or layers(e.g., oriented substantially orthogonal to the column electrodes 102)deposited on top of posts 18 and an intervening sacrificial materialdeposited between the posts 18. Vias through one or more of the layersdescribed above may be provided so that etchant gas, such as xenondiflouride (XeF₂) in embodiments in which the sacrificial layercomprises molybdenum, can reach the sacrificial layers. When thesacrificial material is etched away, the deformable metal layers areseparated from the optical stack 16 by an air gap. A highly conductiveand reflective material such as aluminum may be used for the deformablelayers, and these strips may form row electrodes in a display device.The conductor 142 may be formed by depositing posts 18 a over themovable mirror 14, depositing an intervening sacrificial materialbetween the posts 18 a, depositing one or more layers of a conductorsuch as aluminum on top of the posts 18 a, and depositing a conductivelayer over the sacrificial material. When the sacrificial material isetched away, the conductive layer can serve as the electrode 142, whichis separated from the mirror 14 by a second air gap. Each of the airgaps provides a cavity in which the mirror 14 may move to achieve eachof the states described above.

As further illustrated in FIG. 11, in the exemplary modulator 140, theconductive mirror 14 is connected to the row driver 154 of the arraycontroller 152. In the exemplary modulator 140, the conductors 102 and142 are connected to separate columns in the column driver 156. In oneembodiment, the state of the modulator 140 is selected by applying theappropriate voltage potential differences between the mirror 14 and thecolumn conductors 102 and 142 according to the method described withreference to FIGS. 3 and 4.

FIGS. 12A-12C illustrates another exemplary interferometric modulator150 that provides more than two states. In the exemplary modulator 150,the optical stack 16 includes both a reflective layer and a conductivelayer so as to perform the function of the electrode 102 of FIG. 11. Theconductive layer 142 can also be protected by a second dielectric layer144 a and supported by a support surface 148 that is maintained somedistance above the movable mirror 14 through a second set of supports 18a.

FIG. 12A illustrates the undriven state of the modulator 150. As withthe modulator 140 of FIG. 11, the mirror 14 of the exemplary modulator150 of FIGS. 12A-12C is deflectable towards the dielectric layer 104(e.g., downwards), as in the driven state illustrated FIG. 12B, and isdeflectable in the reverse or opposite direction (e.g., upwards), asillustrated in FIG. 12C. This “upwardly” deflected state may be calledthe “reverse driven state.”

As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, this reverse drivenstate can be achieved in a number of ways. In one embodiment, thereverse driven state is achieved through the use of an additional chargeplate or conductive layer 142 that can electrostatically pull the mirror14 in the upward direction, as depicted in FIG. 12C. The exemplarymodulator 150 includes what is basically two interferometric modulatorspositioned symmetrically around a single movable mirror 14. Thisconfiguration allows each of the conductive layer of the optical stack16 and the conductive layer 142 to attract the mirror 14 in oppositedirections.

In certain embodiments, the additional conductive layer 142 may beuseful as an electrode in overcoming stictional forces (static friction)that may develop when the mirror 14 comes in close proximity, orcontacts, the dielectric layer 106. These forces can include van derWaals or electrostatic forces, as well as other possibilities asappreciated by one of skill in the art. In one embodiment, a voltagepulse applied to the conductive layer of the optical stack 16 may sendthe movable mirror 14 into the “normal” driven state of FIG. 12B.Similarly, the next voltage pulse can be applied to the conductive layer142 to attract the movable mirror 14 away from the optical stack 16. Incertain embodiments, such a voltage pulse applied to the conductivelayer 142 can be used to accelerate the recovery of the movable mirror14 back to the undriven state illustrated in FIG. 12A from the drivenstate illustrated in FIG. 12B by driving the movable mirror 14 towardsthe reverse driven state. Thus, in certain embodiments, the modulator150 may operate in only two states, the undriven state of FIG. 12A andthe driven state of FIG. 12B, and can employ the conductive layer 142 asan electrode to help overcome stictional forces. In one embodiment, theconductive layer 142 may be driven as described above each time that themodulator 150 changes from the driven position of FIG. 12B to theundriven position of FIG. 12A.

As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, not all of theseelements will be required in every embodiment. For example, if theprecise relative amount of upward deflection (e.g., as shown in FIG.12C) is not relevant in the operation of such embodiments, then theconductive layer 142 can be positioned at various distances from themovable mirror 14. Thus, there may be no need for support elements 18 a,the dielectric layer 144 a, or a separate support surface 148. In theseembodiments, it is not necessarily important how far upward the movablemirror 14 deflects, but rather that the conductive layer 142 ispositioned to attract the mirror 14 at the appropriate time, such as tounstick the modulator 12. In other embodiments, the position of themovable mirror 14 as shown in FIG. 12C may result in altered anddesirable optical characteristics for the interferometric modulator 150.In these embodiments, the precise distance of deflection of the movablemirror 14 in the upward direction can be relevant in improving the imagequality of the device.

As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the materials used toproduce the layers 142, 144 a, and support surface 148 need not besimilar to the materials used to produce the corresponding layers 102,104, and 20, respectively. For example, light need not pass through thelayer 148. Additionally, if the conductive layer 142 is positionedbeyond the reach of the movable mirror 14 in its deformed upwardposition, then the modulator 150 may not include the dielectric layer144 a. Additionally, the voltages applied to the conductive layer 142and the movable mirror 14 can be accordingly different based on theabove differences.

As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the voltage appliedto drive the movable mirror 14 from the driven state of FIG. 12B, backto the undriven state of FIG. 12A may be different than that required todrive the movable mirror 14 from the undriven state of FIG. 12A to theupward or reverse driven state of FIG. 12C, as the distance between theconductive layer 142 and movable mirror 14 may be different in the twostates. Such requirements can depend upon the desired application andamounts of deflection, and can be determined by one of skill in the artin view of the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the amount of force or duration that a force isapplied between the conductive layer 142 and the movable mirror 14 issuch that it only increases the rate at which the interferometricmodulator 150 transitions between the driven state and the undrivenstate. Since the movable mirror 14 can be attracted to either conductivelayer 142 or the conductive layer of the optical stack 16, which arelocated on opposite sides of movable mirror 14, a very brief drivingforce can be provided to weaken the interaction of movable mirror 14with the opposite layer. For example, as the movable mirror 14 is drivento interact with the optical stack 16, a pulse of energy to the oppositeconductive layer 142 can be used to weaken the interaction of themovable mirror 14 and the optical stack 16, thereby make it easier forthe movable mirror 14 to move to the undriven state.

In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises a substrate, a movableelement over the substrate, and an actuation electrode. The movableelement comprises a deformable layer and a reflective element spacedfrom the deformable layer. As described above, in certain embodimentsthe optical properties of the movable element are separated from themechanical properties of the movable element (e.g., by providing adeformable layer and a reflective element). In certain such embodiments,the optical properties of the movable element are separated from theelectrical properties of the movable element as well as the mechanicalproperties of the movable element by positioning the actuation electrodeabove the movable element.

FIG. 13A illustrates an embodiment of a MEMS device 1300 in theunactuated (or “relaxed”) state. The MEMS device 1300 comprises amovable element 1340 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1340comprises a deformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 having areflective surface 1301. The MEMS device 1300 further comprises anactuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340. In certainembodiments, the deformable layer 1302 is attracted towards theactuation electrode 142 by electrostatic forces, which pull thedeformable layer 1302 towards the actuation electrode 142. Thereflective element 1314 is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer1302 such that, as the deformable layer 1302 moves towards the actuationelectrode 142, the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element1314 moves a corresponding distance relative to and away from a firstreflective surface 104, which in some embodiments is formed on thesubstrate 20. The movement of the reflective surface 1301 turns the MEMSdevice 1300 “on” or “off,” as described above. By decoupling theelectrical function from the optical function, the area of theelectrically active portion of the movable element 1340 can be reducedto be smaller than the area of the optical portion of the movableelement 1340.

FIG. 13B illustrates the MEMS device 1300 of FIG. 13A in an actuatedstate. Electrostatic attractive forces created by applying voltages tothe actuation electrode 142 act on the deformable layer 1302. Themovable element 1340 is responsive to the attractive forces by moving ina direction towards the actuation electrode 142, as indicated by thearrows 1320. An upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts astationary portion of the MEMS device 1300 (e.g., the insulating layer144 a), stopping the movement of the movable element 1340.

The MEMS device 1300 further comprises a first support structure (or“post”) 18 between the substrate 20 and the deformable layer 1302, asecond support structure 18 a between the deformable layer 1302 and theactuation electrode 142, and insulating layers 106, 144 a. Otherconfigurations are also possible. For example, although the illustratedembodiment has a deformable layer 1302 supported by support structures18, other embodiments are also possible (e.g., as illustrated in FIGS.7C-7E, as described below). For another example, one or both of theinsulating layers 106, 144 a may be omitted in some embodiments.

The MEMS device 1300 further comprises an optical layer (firstreflective layer) 104. In certain embodiments, the substrate 20comprises the optical layer 104 (e.g., in embodiments in which the firstreflective layer 104 is formed over the substrate 20). Light incident onthe reflective element 1314 is reflected from the reflective element.The incident light and the reflected light propagate through the opticallayer 104, but do not propagate through the actuation electrode 142(e.g., because the actuation electrode 142 is positioned above thereflective element 1314). Thus, in contrast to the interferometricmodulators 140, 150, the MEMS device 1300 does not have an electrode inthe optical path.

In some embodiments, the movable element 1340 comprises a connectingelement 1318 that mechanically couples the deformable layer 1302 and thereflective element 1314 together. In embodiments in which the connectingelement 1318 is electrically conductive and electrically couples thedeformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 together, anypotential that builds up on the reflective element 1314 can dischargethrough the deformable layer 1302. Such discharge can reduce arcing thatcan result from two conductors (e.g., the reflective element 1314 andthe first reflective layer 104) at different potentials. In certainembodiments, the movable element 1340 further comprises a connectingelement 1319, as schematically illustrated in FIGS. 13A-13C. Theconnecting element 1319 may be insulating (e.g., comprising SiO₂, Al₂O₃)or conductive (e.g., comprising nickel, aluminum, etc.). Certainembodiments in which the connecting layer 1319 is electricallyconductive may advantageously decrease an amount of curvature and/ortilt of the reflective element 1314 (e.g., in embodiments in which thematerials for the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314have different internal stresses and/or coefficients of thermalexpansion, the connecting element 1319 may decrease and/or absorb thestresses).

The MEMS device 1300 further comprises a black mask 1310 comprising afirst layer 1308 and a reflective layer 1309. Light incident on theblack mask 1310 reflects between the reflective layer 1309 and the firstreflective layer 104 in the area 1311, and is therefore absorbed by theMEMS device 1300 rather than being reflected. As such, the portions ofthe MEMS device 1300 comprising the black mask 1310 appear black to aviewer of the MEMS device 1300. Black masks may also be used in otherportions of the MEMS device 1300, for example to prevent undesiredmodulation of light and/or to minimize the reflectance of areas that donot modulate light, thereby improving contrast ratio.

As illustrated in FIG. 13A, in certain embodiments the top surface 1306of the substrate 20 is spaced from the reflective element 1314 when novoltage is applied to the actuation electrode 142. In certainalternative embodiments, the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 is incontact with the reflective element 1314 when no voltage is applied tothe actuation electrode 142. FIG. 13C illustrates an embodiment of aMEMS device 1305 in which the deformable layer 1302 is configured suchthat the movable element 1340 “launches” negatively (e.g., towards thesubstrate 20) in the relaxed state. For example, the residual stressesbetween the deformable layer 1302 and the support structure 18 and/orthe support structure 18 a may be designed such that the deformablelayer 1302 deflects downward upon removal of sacrificial layers. Theactuated state of the MEMS device 1305 of FIG. 13C may be substantiallythe same as depicted in FIG. 13B.

The response time of a MEMS device is proportional to a product of theresistance of the conductors and the capacitance. A MEMS devicecomprising an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 mayadvantageously reduce resistance and/or and capacitance, therebyreducing response time. Reducing the response time can increase thescreen refresh rate and enhance temporal modulation. In addition todecreasing response time, reducing the capacitance of the MEMS devicecan decrease the power consumption of the MEMS device.

In embodiments in which an actuation electrode 102 is in the opticalpath of the MEMS device (e.g., as depicted in FIG. 8), it comprises amaterial that is transparent to light, for example, but not limited to,ITO, ZnTO, indium zinc oxide (IZO), and indium oxide (IO). In general,transparent conductors have poor electrical resistance compared tonon-transparent conductors, which can result in poor power dissipationand high electrical time constants for MEMS devices comprisingtransparent actuation electrodes 102. However, an actuation electrode142 above the movable element 1340 is not in the optical path, whichallows the actuation electrode 142 to comprise non-transparentconductors such as aluminum, copper, silver, gold, etc., as well astransparent conductors. Certain MEMS devices comprising anon-transparent actuation electrode 142 can advantageously have lowerpower dissipation and/or shorter electrical response times than MEMSdevices comprising a transparent actuation electrode 102 becausenon-transparent conductors can have a lower resistance than transparentconductors.

Certain transparent conductors such as ITO are sensitive to hightemperature processes, such that the maximum processing temperature ofthe MEMS device is limited after formation of the actuation electrode102. For example, ITO degrades at temperatures around 350° C. andhigher, increasing the resistivity of an actuation electrode 102comprising ITO. As such, certain processes (e.g., chemical vapordeposition (CVD) greater than 350° C.) are not typically performed onstructures comprising ITO. However, MEMS devices comprising an actuationelectrode 142 above the movable element 1340 may have an actuationelectrode 142 comprising a variety of conductors that can withstand hightemperature processing, which increases process flexibility forcomponents of the MEMS device. For example, certain depositions can beperformed at high temperatures. For another example, certain depositionprocesses may be CVD rather than physical vapor deposition (PVD) (e.g.,sputter), which can enhance deposition conformality and uniformity.Moreover, in certain embodiments in which the actuation electrode 142 isabove the movable element 1340, the actuation electrode 142 may beformed towards the end of the fabrication process (e.g., after hightemperature processes have been performed).

The thickness of an actuation electrode 102 in the optical path islimited in order to avoid adversely impacting the optical properties ofthe MEMS device, but an actuation electrode 142 above the movableelement 1340 may have a variety of thicknesses because it is not in theoptical path. Increasing the thickness of the actuation electrode 142can, for example, advantageously increase conductivity, thereby reducingresponse time and/or power consumption of the MEMS device. Moreover,thick actuation electrodes 142 enable the use of alternative depositionmethods (e.g., coating, inkjet printing, printable conductors), whichcan lower manufacturing costs.

In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 102 is in the opticalpath of the MEMS device such that it pulls the mirror 14 towards thesubstrate 20, the mirror 14 generally contacts the top surface 1306 ofthe substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface of an insulating layer 106 onthe substrate 20) with the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 actingas a “stop” for movement of the mirror 14. In embodiments in which thereflective surface of the mirror 14 and the top surface 1306 of thesubstrate 20 are flat (e.g., to enhance color gamut), stiction betweenthe surfaces may disadvantageously affect operation of MEMS devices inwhich they contact. Certain features, such as surface roughening andanti-stiction layers, may be used to reduce such stiction, but thosefeatures can adversely impact the optical performance of the MEMSdevice. However, an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element1340 allows configuration of the MEMS device 1300 such that a portion ofthe movable element 1340 contacts the actuation electrode 142 and actsas the stop for movement of the movable element 1340 rather than the topsurface 1306 of the substrate 20. The interface where the portion of themovable element 1340 contacts the actuation electrode 142 can beadvantageously adapted to reduce stiction without impacting opticalperformance because it is not in the optical path. For example, thesurface topography of the insulating layer 144 a may be roughened toreduce the number of contact points or an anti-stiction layer may beformed on the actuation electrode 142.

Transparent actuation electrodes 102 are generally under the entirereflective surface of the mirror 14 (e.g., as depicted in FIG. 8) suchthat the electrostatic forces created by applying voltages to theactuation electrode 102 are sufficient to actuate the MEMS device. Thus,in embodiments in which a capacitor of the MEMS device comprises themirror 14 and the actuation electrode 102, the area of the capacitor andthe capacitance of the MEMS device is high. In embodiments employinglarger mirrors 14 (e.g., to enhance fill factor), the MEMS device canhave even higher capacitances. A MEMS device 1300 in which the capacitorcomprises the actuation electrode 142 and portions of an upper surfaceof the deformable layer 1302 (e.g., as depicted in FIG. 13A) canadvantageously reduce the area of the capacitor and decrease thecapacitance of the MEMS device 1300.

A MEMS device 1300 in which the capacitor comprises the actuationelectrode 142 and portions of an upper surface of the deformable layer1302 (e.g., as depicted in FIG. 13A) can also advantageously decrease amechanical force used to operate the MEMS device and decrease certaindimensions of the deformable layer 1302 because the mechanical functionis at least partially separated from the optical function. In certainembodiments in which the actuation electrode 142 of the MEMS device isbetween the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 andacts a stop for the deformable layer 1302 or the reflective element1314, the area of contact can be smaller than the area of the reflectivesurface 1301. The smaller area of contact results in less stiction, solower mechanical forces may be used, allowing the dimensions of thedeformable layer 1302 to be reduced. In embodiments in which thecapacitor comprises the deformable layer 1302 and the actuationelectrode 142, reduced dimensions of the deformable layer 1302 candecrease the area of the capacitor, and thus advantageously reduce thecapacitance and power consumption of the MEMS device 1300.

High reflectivity broadband white, in which the distance between thefirst and second reflective layers of a MEMS device is negligible (e.g.,less than about 100 Å), is not possible in embodiments in which theactuation electrode 102 is in the optical path electrical shorts mayoccur between the actuation electrode 102 and the mirror 14 when theinsulating layer 106 is that thin. Low reflectivity black, in which thedistance between the first and second reflective layers of a MEMS deviceis between about 90 and 110 nm (e.g., about 100 nm) and certain colors(e.g., red, green, blue, etc.) are also not possible in embodiments inwhich the actuation electrode 102 is in the optical path because theinsulating layer 106 reduces reflectivity (e.g., as described above withrespect to FIG. 9).

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the mirror 14 is electricallyinsulated from the actuation electrode 102 and the first reflectivelayer 104 by the insulating layer 106, as described above. In certainembodiments in which the MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode142 above the movable element 1340, the insulating layer 106 mayoptionally be eliminated from the MEMS device, for example inembodiments in which the reflective element 1314 does not contact thetop surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., when the relaxed state isabove the top of the substrate 20, as depicted by the MEMS device 1300of FIG. 13A) and embodiments in which the reflective element 1314contacts the first reflective layer 104 (e.g., due to negativelaunching, as depicted by the MEMS device 1300 of FIG. 13C). Eliminationof the insulating layer 106 allows the reflective surface 1301 of thereflective element 1314 and the first reflective surface 104 to beseparated by a negligible distance (e.g., by less than about 100 Å ortouching). Each interface of reflective MEMS devices causes somereflectance, so embodiments without an insulating layer 106 may producebetter colors (e.g., better black) than embodiments including aninsulating layer 106. Gray may also be produced without temporalmodulation by spacing the reflective surface 1301 of the reflectiveelement 1314 from the first reflective layer 104 by between about 100 Åand 100 nm.

Referring again to FIG. 13C, the relaxed state may produce highreflectivity broadband white (e.g., by touching the first reflectivelayer 104 or being spaced less than about 100 Å from the firstreflective layer 104), low reflectivity black (e.g., by being spacedfrom the first reflective layer 104 by about 100 nm), gray (e.g., bybeing spaced from the first reflective layer 104 by between about 100 Åand 100 nm), or a color (e.g., yellow, red, blue, etc.).

In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1300 is configured such that thereflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104 contact ornearly contact so as to produce broadband white, the reflective element1314 and the first reflective layer 104 are preferably at the samepotential in order to decrease any electrostatic forces or electricfield therebetween that may cause arcing. In certain embodiments, thereflective element 1314 is in electrical communication with the firstreflective layer 104 through the deformable layer 1302 such that theyare at the same potential. In certain embodiments, the reflectiveelement 1314 is electrically insulated from the deformable layer 1302(e.g., using a dielectric connecting element 1319) and the firstreflective layer 104 is also electrically insulated, such that they areat the same potential. In order to reduce stiction between thereflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104 inembodiments in which they contact, conductive features (e.g., bumps) maybe applied to the first reflective layer 104 and/or the reflectivesurface 1301, although such features may negatively impact opticalperformance of the MEMS device.

In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode142 above the movable element and a second actuation electrode. Themovable element is responsive to voltages applied to the actuationelectrode 142 above the movable element by moving generally in a firstdirection, as described above. The movable element is further responsiveto voltages applied to the second actuation electrode by movinggenerally in a second direction that is substantially opposite the firstdirection. The MEMS device is thus capable of stably producing at leastthree colors: a first color in the relaxed state, a second color in theactuated state in the first direction, and a third color in the actuatedstate in the second direction.

FIG. 14A illustrates a MEMS device 1400 comprising a movable element1440 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1440 comprises adeformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 spaced from thedeformable layer 1302 and having a reflective surface 1301. The MEMSdevice 1400 further comprises an actuation electrode 142 above themovable element 1440 and a second actuation electrode 902 between thedeformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314. In FIG. 14A, thesecond actuation electrode 902 is supported by support structures 18. Incertain alternative embodiments, the second actuation electrode 902 issupported by other support structures (e.g., spaced from the supportstructures 18). However, certain such embodiments may reduce the fillfactor of the MEMS device by occupying portions of the MEMS device thatcould more advantageously be used for the reflective element 1314.

In embodiments in which the deformable layer 1302 is in electricalcommunication with the reflective element 1314 (e.g., due to aconductive connecting element 1418 and/or conductive connecting elementtherebetween (not shown)), the deformable layer 1302 and the reflectiveelement 1314 are at the same potential. In certain such embodiments,when a voltage is applied to the second actuation electrode 902, a firstattractive force in a first direction (e.g., towards the reflectiveelement 1314) acts on a first portion of the movable element 1440 (e.g.,the deformable layer 1302) and a second attractive force in a seconddirection (e.g., away from the reflective element 1314) acts on a secondportion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the reflective element 1314).In certain other such embodiments, when a voltage is applied to thesecond actuation electrode 902, a first attractive force in a firstdirection (e.g., away from the reflective element 1314) acts on a firstportion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the reflective element 1314)and a second attractive force in a second direction (e.g., towards thereflective element 1314) acts on a second portion of the movable element1440 (e.g., the deformable layer 1302). The second direction issubstantially opposite to the first direction. In embodiments in whichthe first attractive force is greater than the second attractive force,the movable element 1440 is responsive to the first and secondattractive forces by moving generally in the first direction, forexample in a direction generally perpendicular to the substrate 20.

FIG. 14B illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1400 of FIG. 14Ain a first actuated state. The first attractive force acts on thedeformable layer 1302 and the second attractive force acts on thereflective element 1314. The movable element 1340 is responsive to thefirst and second attractive forces by moving generally in the firstdirection, for example in a direction generally perpendicular to thesubstrate 20 as illustrated by arrows 1420. A lower surface of thedeformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device1400 (e.g., the second actuation electrode 902). In certain suchembodiments, the reflective element 1314 does not contact the topsurface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of theinsulating layer 106 or the top surface 1306 of the first reflectivelayer 104) in the actuated state. Other embodiments are also possible.For example, the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314may contact a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the topsurface 1306 of the substrate 20) before the lower surface of thedeformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device1400.

FIG. 14C illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1400 of FIG. 14Ain a second actuated state. The movable element 1440 is responsive anattractive force produced by applying voltages to the actuationelectrode 142 by moving in a direction towards the actuation electrode142, as indicated by arrows 1422. An upper surface of the deformablelayer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g.,the insulating layer 144 a). In certain embodiments, the reflectiveelement 1314 does not contact the second actuation electrode 902 in theactuated state. Other embodiments are also possible. For example, anupper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact a stationaryportion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the second actuation electrode902) before the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion ofthe MEMS device 1400.

In order to ensure that the displacement in response to voltages appliedbetween the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440occurs substantially only in the movable element 1440 (e.g., due todeformation of the deformable layer 1302) and substantially not in thesecond actuation electrode 902, the second actuation electrode 902 ispreferably stiff or rigid. The stiffness of a layer is proportional tothe cube of the thickness of the layer. In certain embodiments, thesecond actuation electrode 902 has a thickness such that itsubstantially does not deform. For example, in embodiments in which thesecond actuation electrode 902 comprises aluminum, the actuationelectrode may have a thickness greater than about 2.15 times thethickness of the deformable layer 1302. It will be appreciated thatother dimensions (e.g., length and width) may also influence therigidity of the second actuation electrode 902.

Referring again to FIG. 14A, in certain embodiments, in the relaxedstate, the deformable layer 1302 is separated from the second actuationelectrode 902 by a distance D₁ and the reflective element 1314 isseparated from the second actuation electrode 902 by a distance D₂ thatis different than D₁. The electrostatic force between two conductivelayers with a potential difference between the two conductive layers isinversely proportional to the distance between the two conductivelayers. Thus, the smaller the distance between the second actuationelectrode 902 and a portion of the movable element 1440, the greater themagnitude of the electrostatic forces acting on that portion of themovable element 1440. If the distance D₂ is greater than the distanceD₁, the electrostatic forces per unit area acting on the deformablelayer 1302 are greater than the electrostatic forces per unit areaacting on the reflective element 1314. In certain such embodiments,application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will causethe movable element 1440 to move towards the substrate 20. If thedistance D₁ is greater than the distance D₂, the electrostatic forcesper unit area acting on the reflective element 1314 are greater than theelectrostatic forces per unit area acting on the deformable layer 1302.In certain such embodiments, application of voltages to the secondactuation electrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move awayfrom the substrate 20. In embodiments comprising an actuation electrode142, which causes the movable element 1440 to move away from thesubstrate 20, the distance D₂ is preferably greater than the distance D₁such that the actuation electrodes 142, 902 cause deflection indifferent directions.

In certain embodiments, the percentage difference between the distancesD₁, D₂ is greater than about 5%, greater than about 10%, greater thanabout 15%, or greater than about 20%. The difference between thedistances D₁, D₂ should be balanced with certain other factors, forexample the optical interference properties (e.g., the reflected color)and the thickness of the MEMS device, which also depend on the distancesD₁, D₂. Once there is some amount of imbalance (i.e., a suitabledifference between the distances D₁, D₂), application of voltages to thesecond actuation electrode 902 will attract the portion of the movableelement 1440 with the shorter distance towards the actuation electrode902, thereby decreasing that distance while also increasing the distancefrom the portion of the movable element 1440 with the larger distance.Thus, even in embodiments having a small amount of imbalance (e.g., dueto distance differences below about 10%), the electrostatic forces cansuitably cause actuation of the movable element 1440.

Regardless of the distances between the second actuation electrode 902and the first and second portions of the movable element 1440,electrostatic forces may be at least partially reduced by a conductivelayer that shields at least a portion of the voltage difference betweenthe actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440. For example,shielding the first portion of the movable element 1440 from the secondactuation electrode 902 can cause the electrostatic forces to act moresubstantially on the second portion of the movable element 1440. If thefirst portion of the movable element 1440 that is at least partiallyshielded from the actuation electrode 902 comprises the reflectiveelement 1314, application of voltages to the second actuation electrode902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move towards the substrate20. If the first portion of the movable element 1440 that is at leastpartially shielded from the actuation electrode 902 comprises thedeformable layer 1302, application of voltages to the second actuationelectrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move away from thesubstrate 20. In embodiments comprising an actuation electrode 142,which causes the movable element 1440 to move away from the substrate20, a second conductive layer 1558, described in detail below, ispreferably on a side of the first conductive layer 1552 such that theactuation electrodes 142, 902 cause deflection in different directions.In certain such embodiments, shielding can reduce the thickness of adisplay device comprising the MEMS device 1400 because there does notneed to be a difference between the distances D₁, D₂, although shieldingmay also increase design complexity and fabrication costs.

FIG. 15A illustrates a portion of an embodiment in which the secondactuation electrode 902 comprises a multi-layer stack including aconductive layer 1552 and an insulating layer 1554. In certainembodiments, the conductive layer 1552 comprises a conductive materialto which voltages are applied, and the insulating layer 1554 providesthe desired rigidity to the second actuation electrode 902 and provideselectrical insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuationelectrode 902 and the movable element 1440. For example, a layer of SiO₂greater than about 1,500 Å thick is sufficiently rigid. In certainalternative embodiments, the conductive layer 1552 comprises aconductive material to which voltages are applied and provides thedesired rigidity to the second actuation electrode 902, and theinsulating layer 1554 provides electrical insulation to inhibit shortsbetween the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440.In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that themovable element 1440 moves towards substrate 20 upon actuation, theinsulating layer 1554 is preferably above the conductive layer 1552(e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 15A) because a lower surface of thedeformable layer 1302 may contact the second actuation electrode 902when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state. In embodiments inwhich the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that the movable element1440 moves away from the substrate 20 upon actuation, the insulatinglayer 1554 is preferably below the conductive layer 1552 because anupper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact the secondactuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuatedstate. Other configurations of multi-layer second actuation electrodes902 are also possible. For example, the second actuation electrode 902may comprise a single rigid layer of conductive material and aninsulating layer may be formed on a lower surface of the deformablelayer 1302 and/or an upper surface of the reflective element 1314. Othermulti-layer stacks are also possible. For example, the second actuationelectrode 902 may further comprise a second insulating layer on as sideof the conductive layer 1552 opposite the insulating layer 1554 toprovide electrical insulation to inhibit shorts between the secondactuation electrode 902 and other portions of the movable element 1440.

The thickness of the insulating layer 1554 is included in the distancefrom the conductive portion 1552 of the second actuation electrode 902to the deformable layer 1302, D₁ (e.g., when formed over the conductiveportion 1552, as depicted in FIG. 15A) or to the reflective element1314, D₂ (e.g., when formed under the conductive portion 1552). Incertain embodiments, the insulating layer 2254 is selected to provide adesired dielectric permittivity to tailor the electrostatic forcebetween the actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440.

FIG. 15B illustrates another embodiment in which the second actuationelectrode 902 comprises a multi-layer stack. The second actuationelectrode 902 comprises a first conductive layer 1552 to which actuationvoltages are applied, a first insulating layer 1554 that inhibits shortsbetween the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440,a second conductive layer 1558 that shields a layer of the movableelement 1440 from the electrostatic forces, and a second insulatinglayer 1556 that insulates the first conductive layer 1552 from thesecond conductive layer 1558. The second conductive layer 1558 is on anopposite side of the first conductive layer 1552 from the firstinsulating layer 1554. In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 isdesigned such that the movable element 1440 moves towards the substrate20 upon actuation, the first insulating layer 1554 is above the firstconductive layer 1552 (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 15B) because a lowersurface of the deformable layer 1302 may contact the second actuationelectrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state, andthe second conductive layer 1558 is below the first conductive layer1552 because the reflective element 1314 is at least partially shieldedfrom the electrostatic forces by the second conductive layer 1558. Inembodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that themovable element 1440 moves away from the substrate 20 upon actuation,the first insulating layer 1554 is below the first conductive layer 1552because an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact thesecond actuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in theactuated state, and the second conductive layer 1558 is above the firstconductive layer 1552 because the deformable layer 1302 is at leastpartially shielded from the electrostatic forces by the secondconductive layer 1558. In certain such embodiments, the dimensions(e.g., thickness) of the second actuation electrode 902, comprising thelayers 1552, 1554, 1556, 1558, is rigid enough that the second actuationelectrode 902 substantially does not deform. Other multi-layer stacksare also possible. For example, the second actuation electrode 902 mayfurther comprise a third insulating layer on a side of the secondconductive layer 1558 opposite the first conductive layer 1552 toprovide insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuationelectrode 902 and other portions of the movable element 1440.

An actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and thereflective element 1314 allows configuration of the MEMS device 1400such that a portion of the movable element 1440 contacts the actuationelectrode 902 (i.e., the actuation electrode 902 acts as the stop formovement of the movable element 1440 rather than the top surface 1306 ofthe substrate 20 or a lower surface of the insulating layer 144 a). Theinterface where the portion of the movable element 1440 contacts theactuation electrode 902 can be advantageously adapted to reduce stictionwithout impacting optical performance because it is not in the opticalpath. For example, the surface topography of the insulating layer 1554may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points or anti-stictionlayer may be formed on the actuation electrode 902. For another example,the surface topography of an upper surface of the reflective element1314 or a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 may be roughened toreduce the number of contact points or an anti-stiction layer may beformed on the upper surface of the reflective element 1314 or the lowersurface of the deformable layer 1302.

Electrostatic forces are due to electrical potential differences. Inembodiments in which the movable element 1440 comprises an insulatingconnecting element (not shown), the potential of the reflective element1314 can be about zero when the potential of the deformable layer 1302is not zero. In certain such embodiments, the electrostatic forcesacting on the deformable layer 1302 in response to voltages applied tothe actuation electrode 902 may selectively be larger than theelectrostatic forces acting on the reflective element 1314 in responseto voltages applied to the actuation electrode 902. Thus, the movableelement 1440 may be configured to actuate towards the substrate 20 inresponse to voltages applied to the second actuation electrode 902.Moreover, the area of a capacitor (e.g., between the second actuationelectrode 902 and deformable layer 1302) can be advantageously small,thereby taking less time to discharge than large capacitors (e.g.,between reflective elements and actuation electrodes in the opticalpath), which can decrease response time. However, in embodiments inwhich the reflective element 1314 is electrically insulated from thedeformable layer 1302 or other structures, the reflective element 1314may become charged, thereby creating an electrostatic force itself. Insome embodiments, the reflective element 1314 is coated (e.g., withplastic) to selectively dissipate electrostatic discharge.

When voltages are applied to the second actuation electrode 902,electrostatic forces act on the movable element 1440. In response, thedeformable layer 1302 flexes towards the second actuation electrode 902if the attractive forces on the deformable layer 1302 are greater thanthe attractive forces on the reflective element 1314. The reflectiveelement 1314 is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 1302 suchthat, as the deformable layer 1302 moves towards the second actuationelectrode 902, the reflective element 1314 moves a correspondingdistance relative to and towards the substrate 20. A stationary portionof the MEMS device 1400 acts as a stop for movement of the movableelement 1440.

In certain embodiments (e.g., embodiments in which a lower surface ofthe deformable layer 1302 contacts the second actuation electrode 902),the actuation electrode 902 comprises the stationary portion (e.g., asillustrated in FIG. 14B). In certain such embodiments, an insulatinglayer 106 is optional because the movable element 1440 does not contactthe top surface 1306 of the substrate 20. In certain embodimentsdescribed above in which the MEMS device comprises an actuationelectrode 104 in the optical path and an insulating layer 106, and inwhich the mirror 14 contacts the top surface of the insulating layer 106in the actuated state, the area of contact includes a dielectric layer.To avoid trapping charges in the dielectric layer, the polarity of thevoltages applied to the actuation electrode 104 and the mirror 14 can bealternately switched. Switching polarity dissipates charge, but consumespower. However, in certain embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400does not comprise the insulating layer 106 and in which the reflectivesurface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 contacts the top surface1306 of the first reflective layer 104 in the actuated state, thecontact is advantageously free of an electric field. As such, thevoltages applied to the second actuation electrode 902 and the movableelement 1440 may remain the same, which advantageously saves power.

In some embodiments, an insulating layer 1554 insulates the movableelement 1440 from the second actuation electrode 902. In someembodiments, an insulating layer formed on a lower surface of thedeformable layer 1302 (not shown) insulates the movable element 1440from the second actuation electrode 902. In certain alternativeembodiments, the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 comprises thestationary portion. In some embodiments, an insulating layer 106insulates the movable element 1440 from the first reflective layer 104.

The movable element 1440 is responsive to voltages applied to theactuation electrode 142 by moving generally in a first direction, asdescribed above. In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 142provides the forces to move the movable element 1440 away from thesubstrate 20, the second actuation electrode 902 is configured such thatthe movable element 1440 moves towards the substrate 20 when voltagesare applied to the second actuation electrode 902 (e.g., by positioningthe second actuation electrode 902 closer to the deformable element 1302than the reflective element 1314, by shielding the reflective element1314 with a conductive layer 1558, etc.).

The second actuation electrode 902 preferably comprises anon-transparent conductive material, for example for the electricalproperties described above. The second actuation electrode 902 ispositioned above the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element1314 such that the second actuation electrode 902 is not in the opticalpath of the MEMS device 1400, so it may comprise a non-transparentconductive material. As such, the MEMS device 1400 is capable of fastresponse times and low power consumption.

In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314and a second actuation electrode. The movable element is responsive tovoltages applied to the actuation electrode 902 between the deformablelayer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 by moving generally in afirst direction, as described above. The movable element is furtherresponsive to voltages applied to the second actuation electrode bymoving generally in a second direction that is substantially oppositethe first direction. The MEMS device is thus capable of stably producingat least three colors: a first color in the relaxed state, a secondcolor in the actuated state in the first direction, and a third color inthe actuated state in the second direction. In some embodiments, theactuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1440 may becharacterized as the “second” actuation electrode (e.g., as illustratedin FIGS. 14A-14C).

FIG. 16A illustrates a MEMS device 1600 comprising a movable element1640 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1640 comprises adeformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 having a reflectivesurface 1301. The MEMS device 1600 further comprises an actuationelectrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflectiveelement 1314, and the optical stack 20 comprises a second actuationelectrode 102. In FIG. 16A, the second actuation electrode 102 is formedover the substrate 20.

FIG. 16B illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1600 of FIG. 16Ain a first actuated state. The first portion of the movable element 1640acted on by the first attractive force comprises the deformable layer1302 and the second portion of the movable element 1640 acted on by thesecond attractive force comprises the reflective element 1314. Themovable element 1640 is responsive to the first and second attractiveforces by moving generally in the first direction, for example in adirection generally perpendicular to the substrate 20 as illustrated byarrows 1620. In certain embodiments, an upper surface of the reflectiveelement 1314 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600(e.g., the actuation electrode 902) in the actuated state (e.g., asillustrated in FIG. 16B). In certain alternative embodiments, an uppersurface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion ofthe MEMS device 1600 (e.g., a layer above the movable element 1640).

FIG. 16C illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1600 of FIG. 16Ain a second actuated state. When voltages are applied to the secondactuation electrode 102, electrostatic forces act on the movable element1440. In response, the deformable layer 1302 towards the secondactuation electrode 102. The reflective element 1314 is mechanicallycoupled to the deformable layer 1302 such that, as the deformable layer1302 moves towards the second actuation electrode 102, the reflectiveelement 1314 moves a corresponding distance relative to and towards thesecond actuation electrode 102. The movable element 1640 is responsiveto an attractive force produced by applying voltages to the secondactuation electrode 102 by moving in a direction towards the secondactuation electrode 102, as indicated by arrows 1622. In certainembodiments, the reflective element 1314 contacts a stationary portionof the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20)in the actuated state (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 16C). In certainalternative embodiments, a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., theactuation electrode 902). In certain such embodiments, the reflectiveelement 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20(e.g., the top surface 1306 of the insulating layer 106 or the topsurface 1306 of the first reflective layer 104) in the actuated state.In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 902 provides the forcesto move the movable element 1640 away from the substrate 20, the secondactuation electrode 102 is configured such that the movable element 1640moves towards the substrate 20 when voltages are applied to the secondactuation electrode 102.

Other embodiments of MEMS devices comprising first and second actuationelectrodes are also possible. For example, a MEMS device may comprise afirst actuation electrode 142 above a movable element comprising adeformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 and a secondactuation electrode 102 below the movable element. Additionally, whilenot depicted in FIGS. 14A, 15A, and 16A, certain portions of the MEMSdevices may be in electrical communication with certain other portions.For example, the reflective element 1314 and/or the deformable layer1302 may be in electrical communication with the first reflective layer104.

FIGS. 17A-17H illustrate an example embodiment of a method ofmanufacturing the MEMS device 1300 of FIG. 13A. The MEMS structure 1700illustrated in FIG. 17A includes a substrate 20 (e.g., comprising glass,plastic), a first reflective layer 104 (e.g., comprising chromium), anoptional insulating layer 106 (e.g., comprising SiO₂ and/or Al₂O₃), afirst sacrificial layer 1702, and a reflective element 1314 (e.g.,comprising aluminum) having a reflective surface 1301. As discussedabove, the insulating layer 106 may be omitted in some embodiments. Insome embodiments, the thickness of the first sacrificial layer 1702influences the color of the MEMS device 1300 in the relaxed state.

In certain embodiments, one or more apertures 1704 are formed throughthe reflective element 1314 to allow for easier etching of the firstsacrificial layer 1702. The amount of distance between the reflectiveelement 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 isproportional to the amount of fluid (e.g., air) in the cavity betweenthe reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate20. In certain embodiments of the MEMS device 1300 in which thereflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of thesubstrate 20, the distance between the reflective element 1314 and thetop surface 1306 of the substrate 20 becomes very small. For example,the distance is typically small in embodiments that can produce highreflectivity broadband white (e.g., because the distance is less thanabout 100 Å). Certain such small distances can affect the flow of thefluid (e.g., air) around the reflective element 914 during movement(e.g., relaxation) because some fluid may not have sufficient space tomove around the sides of the reflective element 1314 and may instead maybecome compressed between the reflective element 1314 and the topsurface 1306 of the substrate 20. In certain embodiments, the apertures1704 in the reflective element 1314 provide an additional path for thefluid occupying the cavity between the reflective element 1314 and thetop surface 1306 of the substrate 20 to flow from below the reflectiveelement 1314 to above the reflective element 1314 during movement (e.g.,relaxation). Thus, the at least one aperture 1704 can increase the speedof the MEMS device 1300. However, the portion of the reflective element1314 comprising the at least one aperture 1704 is not reflective, whichreduces the fill factor of the MEMS device 1300.

In embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 does not contact thetop surface 1306 of the substrate 20, the reflective surface 1301 of thereflective element 1314 is preferably substantially smooth and flat, forexample to increase color gamut. In some embodiments, the reflectivesurface 1301 is made substantially smooth and flat by forming thereflective element 1314 on a smooth and flat first sacrificial layer1702 (e.g., comprising photoresist) or by polishing the firstsacrificial layer 1702 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) prior to formationof the reflective element 1314. The reflective surface 1301 of thereflective element 1314 may also be smooth and flat in embodiments inwhich the reflective element 1314 contacts the top surface 1306 of thesubstrate 20 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of a 100 nm thick insulatinglayer 106 to create black or the top surface 1306 of the firstreflective layer 104 to create broadband white), although the possibleeffects of stiction are considered in such embodiments (e.g., by addinginsulating or conductive bumps).

In certain embodiments, a black mask 1310 is formed by using the firstsacrificial layer 1702 as the first layer 1308 and the material for thereflective element 1314 as the reflective layer 1309. In certainalternative embodiments, the black mask 1310 is formed using one or moreother layers. In some embodiments, the MEMS device does not comprise ablack mask.

FIG. 17B illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17A after a secondsacrificial layer 1706 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formedover the reflective element 1314. The second sacrificial layer 1706spaces the reflective element 1314 from the deformable layer 1302. Thesecond sacrificial layer 1706 may comprise the same material as thefirst sacrificial layer 1702 or a different material than the firstsacrificial layer 1702. In some embodiments, formation of the secondsacrificial layer 1706 forms an aperture 1710 through the secondsacrificial layer 1706. In embodiments in which an insulating or otherlayer has been formed on an upper surface of the reflective element1314, the aperture 1710 may allow removal of such layers withoutadditional patterning steps.

FIG. 17C illustrates the MEMS device 1700 of FIG. 17B after a supportstructure 18 has been formed. In embodiments comprising a black mask1310, the support structure 18 may be formed around the black mask 1310to insulate the conductive layer 1309. In certain alternativeembodiments, the support structure 18 is formed before the secondsacrificial layer 1706.

FIG. 17D illustrates the MEMS device 1700 of FIG. 17C after a connectingelement 1319 has been formed over the second sacrificial layer 1706 andat least partially in the aperture 1710. The connecting element 1319 ismechanically coupled to the reflective element 1314 through the aperture1710. In certain alternative embodiments, the support structure 18 isformed after the connecting element 1319.

FIG. 17E illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17D after adeformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over thesupport structure 18, the connecting element 1319, and the secondsacrificial layer 1706. The deformable layer 1302 is mechanicallycoupled to the reflective element 1314 by a connecting element 1318 viathe connecting element 1319. In certain embodiments, one or moreapertures 1303 are formed through the deformable layer 1302 to allow foreasier etching of the second sacrificial layer 1706.

FIG. 17F illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17E after a thirdsacrificial layer 1708 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formedover the deformable layer 1302. The third sacrificial layer 1708 spacesthe deformable layer 1302 from the actuation electrode 142. The thirdsacrificial layer 1708 may comprise the same material as one or both ofthe first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or a differentmaterial than one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers1702, 1706. In certain embodiments, the thicknesses of the secondsacrificial layer 1706 and the third sacrificial layer 1708 influencethe color of the MEMS device 1300 in the actuated state.

FIG. 17G illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17F after formationof a support structure 18 a over the deformable layer 1302, aninsulating layer 144 a over the third sacrificial layer 1708, and anactuation electrode 142 over the insulating layer 144 a. In somealternative embodiments, the support structure 18 a is formed before thethird sacrificial layer 1708. In certain embodiments, the supportstructure 18 a is formed while forming the insulating layer 144 a (e.g.,by depositing SiO₂ and patterning the SiO₂). In some embodiments, theactuation electrode 142 and the insulating layer 144 a comprise at leastone aperture 1316 to allow for easier etching of the third sacrificiallayer 1708.

FIG. 17H illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17G after thefirst, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1708 have beenremoved, resulting in the MEMS device 1300 of FIG. 13A. In embodimentsin which the sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1708 each comprisemolybdenum, they may be removed, for example, by etching with XeF₂. Inembodiments in which a sacrificial layer comprises photoresist, it maybe removed, for example, by ashing (e.g., by etching with O₂ and/orH₂O). The apertures 1704 illustrated in FIG. 17A help the etchant toremove the first sacrificial layer 1702 under the reflective element1314. The apertures 1303 illustrated in FIG. 17E help the etchant toremove the second sacrificial layer 1706 under the deformable layer1302. The apertures 1316 illustrated in FIG. 17G help the etchant toremove the third sacrificial layer 1708 under the actuation electrode142. Upon removal of the sacrificial layers, the movable element 1340can move in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142.

FIGS. 18A-18G illustrate an example embodiment of a method ofmanufacturing the MEMS device 1400 of FIG. 14A. FIG. 18A illustrates theMEMS structure 1700 of FIG. 17B after the formation of a secondactuation electrode 902 over the second sacrificial layer 1706. Asdescribed above, the second actuation electrode 902 may comprise amulti-layer stack. In such embodiments, formation of the secondactuation electrode 902 may comprise a series of patterning steps (e.g.,for each layer of the multi-layer stack, deposition, mask formation,etch, and mask removal) or a single patterning step comprising multipleetches (e.g., deposition of each layer of the multi-layer stack, maskformation, etch of each layer of the multi-layer stack, mask removal).Other sequences are also possible (e.g., deposition of each layer of themulti-layer stack, mask formation, etch of the top layer of themulti-layer stack, and use one or more upper layers as a mask for one ormore lower layers). The thicknesses of the layers of the multi-layerstack may vary, although the resulting second actuation electrode 902 ispreferably rigid enough that it does not substantially deform.

In embodiments in which the movable element 1440 is configured to movetowards the substrate 20 upon application of voltages to the secondactuation electrode 902, an insulating layer 1554 may be formed on thetop of the conductive portion 1552 of the second actuation electrode 902where contact is made with a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302(e.g., as illustrated in FIGS. 15A and 15B). In certain suchembodiments, the top surface of the second actuation electrode 902 maybe roughened to reduce the number of contact points in order to decreasestiction with the deformable layer 1302. Other layers (e.g., ananti-stiction layer) may also be formed on the top of the secondactuation electrode 902.

FIG. 18B illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18A after a thirdsacrificial layer 1808 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formedover the second actuation electrode 902. The third sacrificial layer1808 spaces the second actuation electrode 902 from the deformable layer1302. The third sacrificial layer 1808 may comprise the same material asone or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or adifferent material than one or both of the first and second sacrificiallayers 1702, 1706. In some embodiments, formation of the thirdsacrificial layer 1808 forms an aperture 1810 through the thirdsacrificial layer 1808. In embodiments in which an insulating or otherlayer has been formed on an upper surface of the reflective element1314, the aperture 1810 may allow removal of such layers withoutadditional patterning steps.

FIG. 18C illustrates the MEMS device 1800 of FIG. 18B after a supportstructure 18 has been formed. A portion of the second actuationelectrode 902 is preferably exposed such that the actuation electrode902 may be mechanically coupled to the support structure 18. In certainembodiments, the support structure 18 comprises one or more layers ofthe second actuation electrode 902 (e.g., to allow for electricalrouting).

FIG. 18D illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18C after adeformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over thesupport structure 18 and the third sacrificial layer 1808. Thedeformable layer 1302 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element1314 by a connecting element 1418. In certain embodiments, a connectingelement may be formed between the connecting element 1418 and thereflective element 1314.

FIG. 18E illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18D after a fourthsacrificial layer 1812 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formedover the deformable layer 1302. The fourth sacrificial layer 1812 spacesthe deformable layer 1302 from the actuation electrode 142. The fourthsacrificial layer 1812 may comprise the same material as one or more ofthe first, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808 or adifferent material than one or more of the first, second, and thirdsacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808.

FIG. 18F illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18E after formationof a support structure 18 a over the deformable layer 1302, aninsulating layer 144 a over the fourth sacrificial layer 1812, and anactuation electrode 142 over the insulating layer 144 a. In somealternative embodiments, the support structure 18 a is formed before thethird sacrificial layer 1808. In some embodiments, the support structure18 a is formed while forming the insulating layer 144 a (e.g., bydepositing SiO₂ and patterning the SiO₂). In some embodiments, theactuation electrode 142 and the insulating layer 144 a comprise at leastone aperture 1316 to allow for easier etching of the fourth sacrificiallayer 1812.

FIG. 18G illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18F after thefirst, second, third, and fourth sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808,1812 have been removed, resulting in the MEMS device 1400 of FIG. 14A.Upon removal of the sacrificial layers, the movable element 1440 canmove in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142 andthe second actuation electrode 902.

FIGS. 19A-19D illustrate an example embodiment of a method ofmanufacturing the MEMS device 1600 of FIG. 16A. FIG. 19A illustrates theMEMS structure 1800 of FIG. 18A after a support structure 18 has beenformed, although an aperture 1710 has not been formed in the secondsacrificial layer 1706.

In embodiments in which the movable element 1640 is configured to moveaway from the substrate 20 upon application of voltages to the actuationelectrode 902, an insulating layer 1554 may be formed on the bottom ofthe conductive portion 1552 of the actuation electrode 902 where contactis made with an upper surface of the reflective element 914. In certainsuch embodiments, the bottom surface of the actuation electrode 902 maybe roughened to reduce the number of contact points in order to decreasestiction with the reflective element 914. Other layers (e.g., ananti-stiction layer) may also be formed on the bottom of the actuationelectrode 902.

FIG. 19B illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of FIG. 19A after a thirdsacrificial layer 1808 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formedover the actuation electrode 902. The third sacrificial layer 1808spaces the second actuation electrode 902 from the deformable layer1302. The third sacrificial layer 1808 may comprise the same material asone or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or adifferent material than one or both of the first and second sacrificiallayers 1702, 1706. In some embodiments, formation of the thirdsacrificial layer 1808 forms an aperture 1810 through the second andthird sacrificial layer 1706, 1808. In embodiments in which aninsulating or other layer has been formed on an upper surface of thereflective element 1314, the aperture 1810 may allow removal of suchlayers without additional patterning steps. In some alternativeembodiments, the support structure 18 a is formed before the thirdsacrificial layer 1808.

FIG. 19C illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of FIG. 19C after adeformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over thesupport structure 18 and the third sacrificial layer 1808. Thedeformable layer 1302 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element1314 by a connecting element 1418.

FIG. 19D illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of FIG. 19C after thefirst, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808 have beenremoved, resulting in the MEMS device 1600 of FIG. 16A. Upon removal ofthe sacrificial layers, the movable element 1640 can move in response tovoltages applied to the actuation electrode 902 and the second actuationelectrode 102.

While the above detailed description has shown, described, and pointedout novel features of the invention as applied to various embodiments,it will be understood that various omissions, substitutions, and changesin the form and details of the device or process illustrated may be madeby those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of theinvention. As will be recognized, the present invention may be embodiedwithin a form that does not provide all of the features and benefits setforth herein, as some features may be used or practiced separately fromothers. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claimsrather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come withinthe meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embracedwithin their scope.

1. An electromechanical device comprising: a substrate; an actuationelectrode; and a movable element between the substrate and the actuationelectrode, the movable element including a deformable layer and areflective element each being between the substrate and the actuationelectrode, the deformable layer spaced from the reflective element alonga direction generally perpendicular to the reflective element, whereinthe substrate includes a second actuation electrode.
 2. The device ofclaim 1, wherein a top surface of the substrate is spaced from thereflective element when no voltage is applied to the actuationelectrode.
 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the substrate includes anoptical stack.
 4. The device of claim 1, further comprising a supportstructure between the substrate and the deformable layer, the supportstructure configured to support the deformable layer.
 5. The device ofclaim 1, wherein the movable element includes a connecting elementmechanically coupling the deformable layer to the reflective element. 6.The device of claim 5, wherein the connecting element is electricallyconductive.
 7. The device of claim 5, wherein the connecting element iselectrically insulating.
 8. The device of claim 1, wherein the actuationelectrode includes a non-transparent conductor.
 9. The device of claim8, wherein the non-transparent conductor includes at least one ofaluminum, copper, silver, and gold.
 10. The device of claim 1, furthercomprising a stationary element configured to be a stop for movement ofthe movable element, the stationary element including at least one of aroughened surface and an anti-stiction layer.
 11. The device of claim10, wherein the stationary element includes an insulating layer betweenthe deforming layer and the actuation electrode
 12. The device of claim10, wherein the stationary element is between the deformable layer andthe reflective layer.
 13. The device of claim 1, further comprising: adisplay; a processor configured to communicate with the display, theprocessor configured to process image data; and a memory deviceconfigured to communicate with the processor.
 14. The device of claim13, further comprising a driver circuit configured to send at least onesignal to the display.
 15. The device of claim 14, further comprising acontroller configured to send at least a portion of the image data tothe driver circuit.
 16. The device of claim 13, further comprising animage source module configured to send the image data to the processor.17. The device of claim 16, wherein the image source module includes atleast one of a receiver, a transceiver, and a transmitter.
 18. Thedevice of claim 13, further comprising an input device configured toreceive input data and to communicate the input data to the processor.19. An electromechanical device comprising: means for moving a portionof the device, the moving means including means for deforming and meansfor reflecting, the deforming means spaced from the reflecting meansalong a direction generally perpendicular to the reflecting means; meansfor supporting the moving means; and means for actuating the movingmeans, the moving means including both the deforming means and thereflecting means each being between the supporting means and theactuating means, wherein the supporting means includes second means foractuating the moving means.
 20. The device of claim 19, wherein thesupporting means includes a substrate, or wherein the moving meansincludes a movable element, or wherein the deforming means includes adeformable layer, or wherein the reflective means includes a reflectiveelement, or wherein the actuating means includes an actuation electrode.21. The device of claim 19, wherein the actuating means includes anon-transparent conductor.
 22. The device of claim 19, wherein thesecond actuating means includes a second actuation electrode.
 23. Thedevice of claim 19, further comprising means for stopping movement ofthe moving means, the stopping means including at least one of aroughened surface and an anti-stiction layer.
 24. The device of claim23, wherein the stopping means includes an insulating layer between thedeforming means and the actuating means.
 25. The device of claim 23,wherein the stopping means includes a stationary element between thedeforming means and the reflecting means.
 26. A method for modulatinglight, comprising: providing a display element including a substrate, amovable element, and an actuation electrode, the substrate including asecond actuation electrode, the movable element including a deformablelayer and a reflective element each being between the substrate and theactuation electrode, the deformable layer spaced from the reflectiveelement along a direction generally perpendicular to the reflectiveelement; and applying a voltage to the actuation electrode, the voltagegenerating an attractive force on the movable element, thereby causingthe movable element to move away from the substrate.
 27. The method ofclaim 26, wherein the actuation electrode includes a non-transparentconductor.
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the method furthercomprises applying a second voltage to the second actuation electrode,the second voltage generating a second attractive force on the movableelement, thereby causing the movable element to move towards thesubstrate.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein applying the secondvoltage is after applying the voltage.
 30. The method of claim 26,wherein the display element includes a stationary element including atleast one of a roughened surface and an anti-stiction layer, and whereinthe method further comprises contacting the stationary element andstopping movement of the movable element.
 31. The method of claim 30,wherein contacting the stationary element includes touching thedeformable layer to the stationary element.
 32. The method of claim 30,wherein contacting the stationary element includes touching thereflective element to the stationary element.